The Psychodynamic And Humanistic Perspective - 1640 Words

Personality is a â€Å"pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistently and individuality to a person’s behaviour† (Feist, pg. 4). The two perspectives we will be exploring are the psychodynamic and the humanistic perspective. The psychodynamic theory; influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud; stresses that our unconscious mind plays a major part in an individual’s personality, whereas, the humanistic theory; influenced by the work of Abraham Maslow; focuses on free will and experience in the development of personality. I chose these two theories because they both have contradicting explanations of what they believe personality is and I wanted to explore their ideas and beliefs. When analysing the Psychodynamic perspective we can argue that it emphasises on the individual’s unconscious psychological processes in determining their day to day thoughts, feelings and behaviours. Freud believed the mind was mostly hidden and based his theory on three assumptions; personality is down to human experience, human functioning and the foundation of personality. Human experience explores the idea that our mind takes place on three levels of consciousness; the conscious, the preconscious and the unconscious. The conscious refers to the only level of mental life available to us which we are aware of such as, our memory, feelings and sensations. The preconscious signifies the experiences that are not currently conscious but can become so, forShow MoreRelatedPsychodynamic approach: the basics1202 Words   |  5 Pagesare; Psychodynamic approach and the humanistic approach. I will discuss these 2 psychological theories of development and explain how it accounts for t he psychological development, health and behaviour of the individual. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was considered the founding father of the psychodynamic approach. Psychodynamic theory is a view that explains personality in terms of conscious and unconscious forces, such as unconscious desires and beliefs, Sigmund Freud proposed a psychodynamic theoryRead MoreMajor Depressive Disorder ( Mdd )1363 Words   |  6 Pagesas bereavement. The levels of severity are mild, moderate and severe. Different treatments may be used for Major Depressive Disorder. The three most commonly used perspectives are cognitive-behavioral, humanistic and psychodynamic; although the most commonly used is Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT). Cognitive-behavioral perspective can be used alone or with medication to treat depression. At the origin of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, it is assumed that an individual’s mood is directly relatedRead MoreDifferent Types Of Theoretical Orientations1612 Words   |  7 Pagestypes of theoretical orientations that a student may choose to identify him or herself with. Although students may choose a specific theoretical orientation they may change their orientation later on in their academic career depending on their perspective of the field. Each orientation is equal, neither orientation is better than the other. Just because a person picks a certain orientation doesn’t mean that their psychological assessment will be any longer or shorter. Its important that a studentRead MorePsychodynamic And Humanistic Theories Of Psychology1634 Words   |  7 PagesPsychodynamic and Humanistic Personality Theories The study of the human mind is an interesting topic to discuss about, we have many theorists that have come up with many different ideas or theories, in how to evaluate the mind of humans, two main ways to study the mind in psychology are psychodynamic approach and humanistic approach. Even though these theories are to evaluate human minds they have different views in how the mind works. In psychodynamic approach, the way the mind is viewed is thatRead MorePerspectives of Psychology1141 Words   |  5 PagesPerspectives of Psychology Psychology can be defined as the systematic study of mental processes, couple with behaviors, and experiences (Kalat, 2011). There are many ways in examining, mental processes and behaviors among people, and therefore psychologist uses different perspectives to understand how human beings, think, act, and behave. Some psychologist uses one perspective to analyze behaviors, and other uses a multidimensional approach. Carter Seifert (2013) identified 7 major perspectivesRead MorePersonalities Theories Paper785 Words   |  4 Pagestheorized several understandings of a human beings character from a humanistic and psychodynamic perspective. Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychiatrist, developed the psychodynamic theory which is derived from psychoanalysis. This theory is based on several key factors of personality. Freud used this technique in his study of mental disorders while observing his patients. According to Stedman’s Medical Dictionary, psychodynamic is the theory and systematic study of the psychological forces thatRead MorePsychology : Psychology And Psychology1300 Words   |  6 PagesPsychology There are six modern psychological perspectives. These perspectives are behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive, social, cultural, and biological. Each perspective has its own unique way of explaining human behavior. I think that really explains the complex mental processes and behavior, and each prospective study should not be limited to just one. The following is my explanation of the terms and comparisons between the psychodynamic and behavioral aspects relating to the OctoberRead MoreTheories Of Pe rsonality : Psychodynamic, Trait Or Five Factor Model, Humanistic, And Social Cognitive974 Words   |  4 Pagespersonality: psychodynamic, trait or five-factor model, humanistic, and social-cognitive. The psychodynamic theory primarily focuses on the role of the unconscious mind. The social cognitive theory focuses on the effect of the environment on behavior and is based on theories of learning. Whereas, the humanistic theory emphasizes conscious life experiences and choices. The trait or five-factor model focuses on characteristics themselves and not the roots of personality. To begin, the psychodynamic theoryRead MorePersonality, Cognitive, And Humanistic Perspectives Essay1373 Words   |  6 Pagesfive basic dimensions extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness to experience. (Soto, J. C, Jackson J. J. 2013). However to get a more in depth understanding of personality the psychodynamic and humanistic perspectives are good to look at. The psychodynamic perspective was developed by the 20th century’s most influential and controversial psychologists Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud was one of the first psychologists to discuss the unconscious mind and its role in behaviourRead MoreFour Major Approaches to Clinical Psychology1803 Words   |  7 PagesThere are many approaches to clinical psychology; the four major approaches are in psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic, and family systems. Using the four major approaches contributes to the effectiveness in treatment by identifying the goals of each approach. The paper will break down the approaches, goals, techniques, and the overall approaches used. Philosophical Origins of Clinical Psychology ApproachesAs Thomas Plante (2005) cleverly suggested, clinical psychology is both a science

Fetal Brain Development and the Preterm Infant - 1554 Words

FETAL BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND THE PRETERM INFANT 2 NORMAL FETAL BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Embryonic brain development begins a few weeks after conception through the processes known as gastrulation and neurulation (Gilbert, 2000). During gastrulation the embryo changes from a simple group of cells to a multi-layered organism. Three germ layers are formed during this process: the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm (Gilbert, 2000). The endoderm is the most inner layer and forms the lining of internal organs. The mesoderm is the middle layer which forms the skeletal, muscle, and circulatory systems. The ectoderm is the outer most layer which forms the skin, brain and nervous system. During the process of neurulation the ectoderm, the outermost germ layer, goes through a thickening process which in turn forms the neural plate. With changes in cell attachment and shape, the plate beings to rise and fold eventually with both sides meeting in the middle creating a tube (Gilbert, 2000). This tube pulls away from the ectoderm forming what is termed as the neural tube. â€Å"By 27 days, the tube is fully closed and has already begun its transformation into the brain and spinal cord of the embryo† (Zero to three). Failure of the neural tube to close can result in the cerebral cortex not being able to be formed or in spina bifida. Cells called neural progenitor cells, which formed and differentiated in the ectoderm during gastrulation, begin forming the brain, hind brain and the spinalShow MoreRelatedEffects Of Depression During Pregnancy On Children Essay1540 Words   |  7 Pagesactivities decrease and are less responsive to stimulants. Due to stress hormones, the fetuses have low birth weight and are at a higher risk of preterm delivery. Prenatal depression has been noted to be able to predict the likelihood of postpartum depression from hormones such as low dopamine. Depression during pregnancy negatively affects the development of offspring. One of the first studies on prenatal depression showed that fetuses of depressed mothers had less total movement, and had a higherRead MoreThe Effects Multiple Births Have on Outcomes of Cerebral Palsy in Infants987 Words   |  4 PagesMultiple Births Have on Outcomes of Cerebral Palsy in Infants Cerebral palsy is typically characterized as a disorder caused by injuries to the cerebrum, the part of the brain responsible for higher mental functions, sensations, and voluntary muscle actions (7). Symptoms of cerebral palsy vary by severity of the disease, and include seizures, involuntary muscle contractions, difficulty sucking or feeding, irregular breathing, delayed development of motor skills, motor-mental retardation, mentalRead MoreNursing Case Study1450 Words   |  6 Pages40%) newborns exposed in utero to SSRIs and in 1083 of 67,636 (1.60%) non-exposed newborns. Knudsen et al.,(52) conducted a cohort study based on Danish administrative register data and included all newborn diagnosed with congenital heart defect, fetal deaths and in pregnancies terminated due to congenital anomalies. The use of SSRI was assessed. They identified 546 fetuses with congenital heart anomalies (519 livebirths, 12 stillbirths, 2 miscarriages, and 13 termination of pregnancy) and of theseRead MoreThe Efficacy Of Massage Therapy On Preterm Infants2963 Words   |  12 Pages The Efficacy of Massage Therapy on Preterm Infants Taryn L. Metz Winona State University The Efficacy of Massage Therapy on Premature Infants According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013) 500,000 infants are affected by preterm births each year. A preterm infant is born prior to 37 weeks’ of their gestational age (Smith, 2012) and can be classified as very premature (less than 32 weeks’ gestation), premature (born between 32 and 34 weeks’ gestation) or late prematureRead MoreNutrition During Pregnancy Is Extremely Important During Fetal Growth And Development1784 Words   |  8 PagesIt is in human nature to want better for your children than you previously had Nutrition during pregnancy is extremely important during fetal growth and development Micronutrients are necessary for normal growth and development of the fetus and deficiencies have been found to be associated with fetal growth retardation and small for gestational age infants (9). Even some animal models have shown that micronutrient deficiencies during pregnancy can potentially increase adiposity to the offspring atRead MoreParental Influence On Children s Cognitive Development1260 Words   |  6 PagesAbstract: The following literature review contains different articles that support how relevant is parental influence on their children’s cognitive development. Since a child is born, parents play such an important role in their children’s cognitive development, that failing at doing the proper steps of assuring a correct development in their children affects their children’s academic success in life. Parents could make their children’s future goals achievable or almost impossible, and trace theRead MoreWhy Pregnant Substance Abuse Shou ld Be Treated As A Major Issue1441 Words   |  6 Pagesnone to extremely harmful. Women who use drugs during their pregnancy commonly give birth to â€Å"crack babies† or â€Å"drug babies†. 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Cbse Chemistry Notes for 11 and 12 Free Essays

string(34) " near to the most probable speed\." Supplementary Textual Material in Chemistry for Class XI Class XII 1 Acknowledgements CBSE ADVISORS Shri Vineet Joshi, I. A. S. We will write a custom essay sample on Cbse Chemistry Notes for 11 and 12 or any similar topic only for you Order Now , Chairman, CBSE Shri Shashi Bhushan, Director (Acad. ), CBSE CONVENOR EDITOR Prof. A. K. Bakhshi Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi. DEVELOPMENT TEAM Prof. A. K. Bakhshi Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi. Dr. Anju Srivastava Hindu College, University of Delhi. Dr. Vimal Rarh S. G. T. B. Khalsa College, University of Delhi. Dr. Geetika Bhalla Hindu College, University of Delhi. Ms. Anupama Sharma Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi. MEMBER COORDINATOR Dr. Srijata Das, Education Officer, CBSE 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Class XI Unit 5 : States of Matter 5. 7. 1 Kinetic Energy and Molecular Speeds 5. 7. 2 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of molecular speeds Unit 6 : Thermodynamics 6. 6. 1. Second Law of Thermodynamics 6. 8. Third Law of Thermodynamics Unit 7 : Equilibrium 7. 12. 1 pH of Buffer Solutions Class XII Unit 16 : Chemistry in Everyday Life 16. 4. 2. 1 Antioxidants 3 Unit 5: States of Matter 5. 7. 1 KINETIC ENERGY AND MOLECULAR SPEEDS As you have studied in the previous section the molecules of a gas are always in motion and are colliding with each other and with the walls of the container. Due to these collisions the speeds and the kinetic energies of the individual molecules keep on changing. However at a given temperature, the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules remains constant. If at a given temperature, n1 molecules have speed v1, n2 molecules have speed v2, n3 molecules have speed v3, and so on. Then, the total kinetic energy (EK) of the gas at this temperature is given by where m is the mass of the molecule. The corresponding average kinetic energy ( If the following term Then the average kinetic energy is given by where c is given by 4 ) of the gas will be This ‘c’ is known as root-mean-square speed. As the name implies, to calculate c, first take the squares of the individual speeds, then their mean and finally the square root of the mean. It can be shown that c is related to temperature by The average kinetic energy depends only on absolute temperature and is related to absolute temperature by the expression where k = Boltzmann constant = 1. 38 x 10-23 J K-1 In the case of gases, one also talks of two other speeds, namely, average speed and most-probable speed. The average speed ( ) at a given temperature is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of different molecules of the gas. . e, where n1 molecules have speed v1, n2 molecules have speed v2, n3 molecules have speed v3, and so on. The relationship between average speed and temperature T is given by The most probable speed ( ) of a gas at a given temperature is the speed possessed by the maximum number of molecules at that temperature. Unlike average speed and root mean sq uare speed, the most probable speed cannot be expressed in terms of the individual molecular speeds. The most probable speed ( ) is related to absolute temperature (T) by the expression 5 Relationship between different types of molecular speeds The three types of molecular speeds, namely, most probable speed ( ), average speed ( ) and root mean square speed (c) of a gas at a given temperature are related to each other as follows: For a particular gas, at a particular temperature, It follows from the above relationships that Example: Calculate the root mean square, average and most probable speeds of oxygen molecules at 27 oC. Solution: Given data: Molar mass of oxygen, M = 32 g mol-1 = 0. 032 kg mol-1 Temperature, t = 27 oC T = (27 + 273) K = 300 K 6 Expressions to be used: Root mean square speed, Average speed, Most probable speed, Actual calculations Root mean square speed, Average speed, Most probable speed, 5. 7. 2 MAXWELL-BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS The speeds of the individual molecules of a gas do not remain constant. They keep on changing due to inter molecular collisions and due to collisions with the walls of the container. However, at a given temperature, the distribution of molecular speeds remains constant. This distribution of molecular speeds is given by Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution law. 7 For a given gas, at a given temperature, the distribution curve of molecular speeds is shown in Figure 5. 7. 1 Figure 5. 7. 1. Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curve You can see from the distribution curve that it is the plot of molecular speed vs the fraction of molecules. The important features of this distribution curve are: (i) The fraction of molecules having too low or too high speeds is very small. (ii) There is a certain speed for which the fraction of molecules is maximum. This speed is known as most probable speed. (iii) The most probable speed of a gas, is the speed possessed by the maximum number of molecules of the gas at a given temperature and it corresponds to the peak of the curve. Since the most probable speed ( xpression ) is related to absolute temperature T by the It means that at the same temperature, lighter gases shall move faster than heavier gases as is evident from the distribution curves of chlorine and nitrogen gases in Figure 5. 7. 2. 8 Figure 5. 7. 2. Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curves for chlorine and nitrogen gases at 300K Effect of temperature In Figure 5. 7. 3. are given t he Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curves of a gas at three different temperatures T1, T2 and T3 such that T1gt;T2gt;T3. Figure 5. 7. 3. Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curves for a gas at three different temperatures 9 It can be seen from these distribution curves that as the temperature increases 1. The entire curve shifts towards right. 2. The most probable speed increases. 3. The fraction of molecules having most probable speed decreases. 4. The curve becomes broader in the middle range indicating that more molecules have speeds near to the most probable speed. You read "Cbse Chemistry Notes for 11 and 12" in category "Papers" 5. The fraction of molecules having higher speeds increases. 6. The fraction of molecules having lower speed decreases. It may be noted that the total area under each of the curves remains the same as the sum of fractions of molecules remains unaltered on changing the temperature. 0 EXERCISE 1. Calculate (i) root mean square speed (ii) average speed and (iii) most probable speed of CO2 molecules at 700 K . 2. A sample of a gas contains 15 molecules with a speed of 3 m s-1, 25 molecules with a speed of 5 m s-1 and 30 molecules with a speed of 8 m s-1. Calculate root mean sq uare speed of these molecules. 3. Calculate the temperature at which the average speed of oxygen equals that of hydrogen at 20 K. 4. Calculate the temperatures at which the root mean square speed, average speed and the most probable speed of oxygen gas are all equal to 1500 m s-1. Answers 1. i. 629. 92, m s-1 ii. 80. 50 m s-1 iii. 514. 33 m s-1 2. 6. 187 m s-1 3. 320 K 4. T for root mean square speed= 2886 K, T for the average speed = 3399 K, T for most probable speed = 4330 K 11 12 Unit 6 : Thermodynamics 6. 6. 1 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS You have already studied in the previous sections that the first law of thermodynamics deals only with the law of conservation of energy and it gives no information about the criteria for feasibility of a given physical or chemical process. This law is always obeyed whether a given process occurs on its own or is made to occur with the help of an external agency. In any case the first law is valid in both the forward and reverse direction of the process. You have also learnt about the concept of entropy which is a measure of the randomness or the disorder in a system. This concept helps in explaining the spontaneity of the irreversible processes. For an irreversible process, the entropy of the system and surroundings taken together i. e. of the universe increases, while for a process at equilibrium it remains constant. This conclusion is of great importance as it helps us to predict whether a given process can take place spontaneously or not. Since all processes in nature occur spontaneously i. e. irreversibly, it follows that the entropy of the universe is increasing continuously. This important statement i. e. â€Å"in any spontaneous process, the entropy of the universe (system and surroundings) always increases† is also known as the second law of thermodynamics. ?SUniverse = ? Ssystem + ? Ssurroundings Specifically it means that If ? SUniverse gt; 0, the reaction is spontaneous If ? SUniverse lt; 0, the reaction is non-spontaneous If ? SUniverse = 0, the reaction is at equilibrium Since chemists are generally more interested in the system (reaction mixture) than the surroundings, it is therefore more convenient to restate the second law in terms of the thermodynamic properties of the system, without regard to the surroundings. As already described in the previous section, this is possible through the Gibbs free energy G which for a system is defined as G = H – TS. In terms of this thermodynamic property, the second law of thermodynamics can be restated as in any spontaneous process at 13 constant temperature and pressure, the free energy of the system (? Gsystem) always decreases. According to this definition If ? Gsystem lt; 0, the reaction is spontaneous If ? Gsystem gt; 0, the reaction is non-spontaneous If ?Gsystem = 0, the reaction is at equilibrium 6. 8. THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS The third law of thermodynamics is concerned with determination of entropy. It states that a substance which is perfectly crystalline at absolute zero of temperature has an entropy of zero. In a perfect crystal at absolute zero of temperature, each constituent of the crystal (atom, molecule or ion) is at the proper crystal lattice site and it therefore has the lowest energy. This means that this particular state is of perfect order, i. e, has zero disorder and hence zero entropy. Using zero value of entropy at absolute zero for a perfectly crystalline substance as the reference point (initial state), one can calculate absolute value of entropy of the substance in any state (solid, liquid or gas) at any temperature by calculating ? S for the process/es in going from the initial state to the state of the substance for which entropy is to be calculated. However there are certain substances which possess certain entropy even at absolute zero. This entropy is known as residual entropy. The origin of residual entropy can be explained on the basis of the disorder which remains at absolute zero in certain crystals composed of AB types of molecules where A and B are similar atoms (as in CO). In such substances, there is a very little energy difference between â€Å"†¦AB AB AB†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å".. †¦AB BA BA AB†¦.. † and other arrangements so that the molecules adopt the orientations AB and BA at random in the solid. This gives rise to some disorder, also known as frozen disorder, and consequently residual entropy. For example in case of CO, the measured residual entropy is 5 J K-1 mol-1 which is close to the value expected for a random structure Figure 1 (B) of the form â€Å"†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦CO CO OC CO CO OC OC†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . 14 Figure 1. Alternative molecular arrangements for CO (A) Perfect crystal (B) Actual crystal EXERCISE 1. State Second Law of Thermodynamics. 2. Write the conditions in terms of ? H and ? S when a reaction would be always spontaneous. 3. When ? H gt; 0 and ? S lt; 0, a reaction is never spontaneous. Explain. 4. Comment on the spontaneity of a reaction at constant temperature and pressure in the following cases i) ? H lt; 0 and ? S gt; 0 (ii) ? H gt; 0 and ? S lt; 0 (iii) ? H lt; 0 and ? S lt; 0 (iv) ? H gt; 0 and ? S gt; 0 5. State third law of thermodynamics. 6. Explain the term residual entropy. 15 Unit 7: Equilibrium 7. 12. 1 pH OF BUFFER SOLUTIONS : HENDERSON – HASSELBALCH EQUATION As you have already learnt in the previous section a buffer solution is a soluti on which resists change in its pH on the addition of small amount of acid or a base. Most of the important buffer solutions generally consist of mixtures of weak acids and their salts or weak bases and their salts. These buffer solutions are known as acidic buffers and basic buffers respectively. If the pH of the buffer solution is less than 7, it is called an acidic buffer and if the pH of the buffer solution is greater than 7 it is called a basic buffer. Examples of some acidic and basic buffers are as given below Acidic buffer Basic buffer 1) Acetic acid and sodium acetate 1) Ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride 2) Formic acid and sodium formate 2) Ammonium hydroxide and ammonium nitrate pH of an acidic buffer A very common example of an acidic buffer is a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate. Acetic acid, being a weak acid, is very slightly dissociated, while sodium acetate being a salt is completely dissociated. The mixture thus contains acetic acid molecules as well acetate ions and sodium ions. At equilibrium: CH3COOH(aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO-(aq) Taking the negative logarithm on both the sides, we get 16 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 39) In general, †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 40) It may be noted that the concentration of the acetate ions is taken to be almost equal to the concentration of the salt because the acetate ions coming from fully dissociated salt (here sodium acetate) suppress the ionization of the weak acid (acetic acid). This equation (7. 0) is called Henderson- Hasselbalch equation. According to this equation, the pH of an acidic buffer consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and its salt depends on the pKa of the acid, and the concentrations of the salt and acid in the mixture. If concentration of the sa lt is equal to that of the acid, then Buffer action of Acidic buffer The buffer action of an acidic buffer consisting of a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate can be explained in the following way. If we add small amount of HCl to the buffer solution it will ionise to give H+ ions. These combine with CH3COO- ions to form weakly ionized acetic acid. CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq) ? CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) Since H+ ions get neutralised by CH3COO- ions, there will be no change in pH. On the other hand, if we add a few drops of NaOH to the buffer solution, it provides OH- ions which are neutralized by the acetic acid present in the mixture. 17 OH-(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) ? CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l) Therefore the pH of the solution remains unchanged. pH of a Basic Buffer A very common example of a basic buffer is a mixture of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride. Ammonium hydroxide being a weak base is very slightly dissociated, while ammonium chloride being a salt is completely dissociated. The mixture thus contains ammonium hydroxide molecules as well as ammonium ions and chloride ions. At equilibrium, NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) Taking the negative logarithm on both the sides, we get †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 41) In general, †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 42) 18 It may be noted that the concentration of the ammonium ions is taken to be almost equal to the concentration of the salt because ammonium ions coming from the fully dissociated salt (here ammonium chloride) suppress the ionization of the weak base ammonium hydroxide. This equation (7. 42) is called Henderson- Hasselblach equation. Further, pH can be calculated easily from pOH using Hence, It may be noted that pKa + pKb = 14 Buffer action of basic buffer The buffer action of a basic buffer consisting of a mixture of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride can be explained in the following way. If a few drops of HCl are added to the buffer solution, it will ionise to give H+ ion which will combine with OH- ions to form H2O. H+(aq) + OH- (aq) ? H2O(l) Therefore, the addition of HCl will not change the pH. On the other hand, when a few drops of NaOH solution are added to the buffer solution, it would give OH- ions. These OH- ions combine with NH4+ ions present in the solution to form NH4OH, which is only slightly ionised. OH-(aq) + NH4+ (aq) ? NH4OH(aq) Hence, the addition of a base also will not change the pH. 19 EXERCISE 1. A certain buffer is made by mixing sodium formate and formic acid in water. With the help of equations explain how this buffer neutralizes addition of a small amount of an acid or a base. 2. A basic buffer is made by mixing ammonium hydroxide and ammonium nitrate in water. Explain how this buffer resists change in its pH on addition of a small amount of an acid or a base. 3. What would be the pH of a solution obtained by mixing 10 g of acetic acid and 15 g of sodium acetate and making the volume equal to 1 L. Dissociation constant of acetic acid at 25oC is 1. 75 x 10-5. 4. A buffer solution contains 0. 40 mol of ammonium hydroxide and 0. 50 mol of ammonium chloride to make a buffer solution of 1 L. Calculate the pH of the resulting buffer solution. Dissociation constant of ammonium hydroxide at 25oC is 1. 81 x 10-5. Answers 3. pH = 4. 80 4. 9. 161 20 Class XII Unit 16: Chemistry in Everyday Life 16. 4. 2. 1. ANTIOXIDANTS Antioxidants are one of the important and necessary food additives. These compounds retard the action of oxygen on food thus reducing its speed of decomposition by oxidation. Hence they help in the preservation of food. These act as sacrificial materials, i. e. these are more reactive towards oxygen than are the materials they are protecting. They also reduce the rate of involvement of free radicals in the aging process. Examples: The two most familiar antioxidants used are butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) (Figure 1). These phenolic compounds are added to preserve fats in packaged food. Oxygen reacts preferentially with BHA or BHT rather than oxidizing fats or oils, thereby protecting them from spoilage. The addition of BHA to butter increases its storage life from months to years. Sometimes, BHT and BHA are added in combination with citric or ascorbic acids to produce a more active synergetic effect. Figure 1: Butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) Sulphur dioxide and sulphites ( such as sodium sulphite, sodium bisulphite and sodium metabisulphite) are useful antioxidants for wine and beers, sugars syrups and cut, peeled or dried fruits and vegetables. They prevent or reduce their discoloration. 21 EXERCISE 1. Name one antioxidant commonly used to increase the storage life of butter. 2. Name one antioxidant used in wine and beers. 22a How to cite Cbse Chemistry Notes for 11 and 12, Papers

Dibetes Melitus an Increasing Health Problem all over the World

Question: Discuss about the One Social Determinant that may Impact upon Population-Level Rates of Diabetes and related Complications. Answer: Dibetes Melitus (DM) is a increasing health problem throughout the entire world and near about 177 million people are suffering with the same disease. It is expected to rise up by 300 million in 2025 in Asia and Africa by 2025.Apart from that Uganda is suffering from upsurge of diabetes. Thus in order to discuss general study of population we took a random sample from Kampala capital city and its adjacent town Mukono the existence is estimated to rise by 8.1%.Basically adherence to proper medication of Anti diabetic drugs are prescribed often by the doctors. This medication is often followed by proper diet and also bringing changes in life style can provide can improve the condition of the suffering patient (Perwitasari Urbayatun ,2016) But at the same time due to non-adherence medication with diabetic patients can affect the treatment of the patients and can ultimately lead to death in that case. This will impact the health of the patient directly or indirectly. Apart from that the magnitude and scope of non-adherence effect is too high thus it is important to follow the adherence to the existing treatments rather than developing new medical conditions. A study in United States proves that people who did not followed proper medical treatment suffered most than the ones who followed adherence. Generally there is emphasis on the patients to understand the proper medication in spite of that patients rarely adhere to the drugs in case of chronic diseases and thus they are not able to achieve their individual health goals. The associated factors with Non Adherence are usually centered by the patients itself. They are usually therapy related or health care related. The factors which are centered by the patients may be therapy related (Hindawi, 2011) The factors which are patient related can be often demographic demographic (gender, age, education level and marital status) whereas psychological factors include motivation and beliefs of patients towards the therapy, patient-prescriber relationship, health issues understanding, negative attitude and knowledge of the patients. The factors related to therapy generally conclude to duration of treatment, medication route, treatment complexity, medication type and side effects of medicines. Main factors related to healthcare generally include accessibility and availability of healthcare and the interactions with patients with healthcare. (NCBI, 2009) There are many individual adults suffering from dibetis thus they go for antihyperglycemic medications or insulin along with proper exercise and diet so that they are able to maintain their body blood sugar level. It is very essential to adhere with the oral based antihyperglymic medications as it helps in long time glycemic control (1-3) in the body. At the same time the entire level of non adherenece is prescribed to regimens among other list of patients usually ranges are from 9% to 80% along with high rate in symptom free patients .A recent study states that individuals suffering from the disease are usually taking medications based on glycemic control and also from typical comorbidities of diabetes such as dyslipidemia and hypertension. Apart from that the drug regimen of patients suffering from this disease is now becoming extremely complex thus adherence can be a big challenge in this case. Nonadherence is usually named as Medication possession ratio (MPR) 80%..Multivariate lo gistic regression analysis are often performed where hospitalization is regressed to non adherence to oral antihyperglycemic drug regimen .Oral antihyperglycemic therapies are very useful to decrease glucose levels among the other patients in case of type 2 dibetis. Hence it lowers the risk of developing microvacular and macrovascular problems. But at the same time we must note that the nonadherence oral medication and hospitalization treatments is not developed much in case of patients suffering from dibetis. The past studies have proved various potential risk factors due to non adherence towards medicines across various medical conditions. Often mentioned factors of risk include ethnicity, sex ,income, education, age, co-morbidity through their relationship with prescribed medical treatment or adherence is generally inconsistent because of variation in sample population and study designs. The side effects related to medication also come under non-adherence. A sample related to non-adherence was done in Uganda urban hospital and it has indicated long term interval to a facility visit. It has demonstrated that patients do not understand the regimen of drug and inability to afford medicinal cost of drugs associated with non-adherence. The diet plan explanation and proper method to follow it is usually related to adherence (Cramer, 2004) If we talk about Uganda sample study taking into consideration social population then we will find out that there is literature scarcity on diabetic treatment adherence in rural areas and the population is very poor with less health care facilities. Apart from that the amount of patients suffering to diabetes over there is increasing day by day. Hence it is very much essential to rectify factors associated to medical adherence. Therefore various studies were conducted in developed countries where there is vast gap in knowledge about the occurrence and factors which are related with the adherence to diabetic treatment in rural areas. Further there are factors related to adherence to anti diabetic medication in the eastern parts of Uganda. Thus it will guide the interventions for improving adherence to drug and optimal glycemic control in patients suffering with diabetics in the rural areas (Delamater, 2006) The following conditions in the rural areas demonstrate that due to lack of availability of healthcare conditions there is vast increase in diabetes thus it's important to improve the same so that the patients suffering from this disease can recover after proper adherence .These conditions are not only prevailing in Uganda but in almost all the rural areas of the world where the medical facilities are not fully provided. References: NCBI, 2009., Nonadherence and factors affecting adherence of diabetic patients to anti-diabetic medication in Assela General Hospital, Oromia Region, Ethiopia, [Online] Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4832902/ [Assessed 2 April 2017]Hindawi, 2011 .,Nonadherence and Contributing Factors among Ambulatory Patients with Antidiabetic Medications in Adama Referral Hospital . [Online] Available at: https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jdr/2014/617041/ [Assessed 2April2017] Cramer. J, 2004., A Systematic Review of Adherence With Medications for Diabetes .[Online] Available at: https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/27/5/1218 [Assessed 2April 2017]Delamater.A , 2006 ., Improving Patient Adherence .[Online] Available at : https://clinical.diabetesjournals.org/content/24/2/71 [Assessed 2 April 2017] Perwitasari .D Urbayatun .S ,2016.,Treatment Adherence and Quality of Life in Diabetes Mellitus Patients in Indonesia.[Online ]Available at : https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2158244016643748 [Assessed 2 April 2017]